CORRELATION OF CULTURAL-CHRONOLOGICAL GROUPS AT THE END OF THE 2nd MILLENNIUM — THE BEGINNING OF THE 1st MILLENNIUM BC IN THE PRUT-DNIESTER REGION

The processes that took place at the junction of the Bronze and Iron Ages in the Balkan-Carpathian-Pontic region always have a sustainable priority in the research of the specialists. Both the archaeological and the interdisciplinary investigations carried out mainly from the second half of the 20th century to the present time have made available materials, the analysis of which allows to more adequately explain some phenomena, such as the «ash lenses» well-known in both periods (Сава, Кайзер 2011, с. 45—458) and the succession of some cultural groups (Morintz 1978; балагури 2001, с. 323—336), which contributed substantially to the process of creating and evolving the main archeological facies or cultural levels during the transition period and the beginning of the Iron Age (Leviţki 1994b, p. 219—256; Nicic 2008, p. 124—132; Niculiţă, Zanoci, Băţ 2016, p. 40—45, 337—380). Noteworthy the significant importance of archaeological materials and interdisciplinary data collected in recent years during field studies at a number of sites of the final phase of the Late Bronze Age and the first stage of the Iron Age. In spite of these achievements, the differences regarding the correlation of the final stage of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age, widely discussed in historiography

The processes that took place at the junction of the Bronze and Iron Ages in the Balkan-Carpathian-Pontic region always have a sustainable priority in the research of the specialists. Both the archaeological and the interdisciplinary investigations carried out mainly from the second half of the 20 th century to the present time have made available materials, the analysis of which allows to more adequately explain some phenomena, such as the «ash lenses» well-known in both periods (Сава, Кайзер 2011, с. 45-458) and the succession of some cultural groups балагури 2001, с. 323-336), which contributed substantially to the process of creating and evolving the main archeological facies or cultural levels during the transition period and the beginning of the Iron Age (Leviţki 1994b, p. 219-256;Nicic 2008, p. 124-132;Niculiţă, Zanoci, Băţ 2016, p. 40-45, 337-380). Noteworthy the significant importance of archaeological materials and interdisciplinary data collected in recent years during field studies at a number of sites of the final phase of the Late Bronze Age and the first stage of the Iron Age. In spite of these achievements, the differences regarding the correlation of the final stage of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age, widely discussed in historiography © I. NICULIţă, 2019 in the second half of the 20 th century, so remained unresolved. The dissensions are largely related to the perception system characteristic of the mentality of the past century, which is still practiced today: that the substrate should retain the main features of the upper stratum. In fact, even if there is continuity, a complete similarity of the main aspects of material culture is hard to follow. And the idea of a sudden change of population in the 11 th -10 th centuries BC (Смирнова 1969, с. 26-32;Morintz 1970, p. 729-731) is not only not convincing (Мелюкова 1979, с. 14-89), but also completely obsolete thanks to the new discoveries (Sava 2014, p. 77-105;Niculiţă, Zanoci, Băţ 2016, p. 375-396).
An analysis, whether brief, of the available informational materials, allows seeing essential similarities between civilization in the final phase of the Bronze Age and in the first stage of the Iron Age, which is manifested through: • Practicing of the bi-ritualism in the funeral rite both in the Noua culture and in some of the early Iron Age cemeteries; • The predominance of incineration in urns, the rite used in the final phase of the Bronze Age and in the first stage of the Iron Age; • Topography of the settlements; • Architectonics and method of construction of dwellings and household structures; • The range of pottery, the use of certain forms of vessels and types of decor; • Some types of plastic art and ornamentation system.
These peculiarities seem to indicate the idea of continuity between both cultural groups. But the logic of research is not always in full consistency with historical realities. The funeral rite, one of the most conservative aspects of spirituality, practiced in both eras, seems to be a real argument in favor of the existence of continuity during the transition period. But both bi-ritualism and the use of incineration in urns, or burial in cists of stone slabs or rings of stone pieces (Кашуба 2000, с. 270-292;Niculiţă, Arnăut 2010, p. 185-189, fig. 1-6) is common in different regions of southeastern Europe (Стоянов 1997, с. 1-120) at the beginning of the 1 st millennium BC.
The study of the settlements of the final phase of the Bronze Age shows that unlike previous periods, they become larger and more stable. This transformation, according to some experts, can be explained by «…a more pronounced sedentary activity». The argument in this regard would serve «…The osteological remnants that make up 40-50 %, while in the previous period the percentage reached 60-65 %». However, the same authors do not exclude that «… the change of the type of settlement and the new elements that appear in the pottery finds are determined by the contact with the Hallstatt civilization crystallized in the zone outside the area of spreading the Noua culture» (Florescu, Capitanu 1968, p. 45-46).
The absence of cultural hiatuses and chronological deviations has led to the idea of existence in the evolution of the Noua culture of «…the third stage with which its development ends» (Florescu, Căpitanu 1968, p. 46). Analysis of topography of sites at the end of the Bronze Age and the first period of the Iron Age shows that in the most frequent cases the location is the same. Moreover, it has now been found that 37 % of early Iron Age sites overlap the settlements of the final phase of the Bronze Age, some of which have direct links with each other. Constant similarity can be observed between the types of dwellings and household annexes. From the above it can be seen that the continuity of material culture at the turn of the two millennia BC is beyond doubt. However, this is where the disagreements begin.
The location of settlements, even the overlapping of some of them, and the architectonics of the common buildings in both eras can testify a coincidence and not necessarily a cultural unity. Due to the fact that the population in the first stage of the Iron Age was sedentary communities of farmers and cattle breeders, they occupy the same areas, widely used in previous periods, being more accessible and more convenient to their way of life. The same criteria can be used in relation to the similarity between certain forms of pots and the types of relief decorations: in the form of belts with oblique cuts, belts with rows of alveoli, or incisions characteristic of the pottery used in both eras (Leviţki 1994b, p. 221-256;Nicic 2008, p. 132;Niculiţă, Zanoci, Băţ 2016, p. 40-140). The analysis of materials, currently available, does not allow for a clear boundary between the final phase of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age. This led to the idea of "… a third stage" (Florescu, Căpitanu 1968, p. 46) after the Noua culture. However, since the sites attributed to this facies cannot be accurately attributed to the Noua culture, it seems more appropriate that they belonged to the stage of early Hallstatt (Sava 2014, p. 10).
The evolution of culture of the final phase of the Late Bronze Age and the beginnings of the Iron Age in the northwest (балагури 2001, с. 243-322), southwest (Gumă 1993, p. 148-242) and east of the Carpathians (Laszlo 1994, p. 148-242;Leviţki 1994a, p. 51-156;Nicic 2008, p. 23-132;Niculiţă, Zanoci, Băţ 2016, p. 40-140) was thoroughly and professionally analyzed on the basis of the certain materials found in all the areas of the Balkan-Carpathian-Pontic region. These and other works based on the results of investigations led to the conclusion that «… the early Hallstatt … evolved from the cultural complexes … which can be distinguished from the archaeological point of view, especially their specific pottery with fluted ornamentation, respectively incised and imprint-ed…» (Istoria… 2010, p. 301). The conclusion is rather a finding determined by the significance and level of current information sources available. This finding results from: • still insufficient research of sites of the end of the Bronze Age and the first period of the Iron Age; • partial, and therefore ineffective publication of materials from the already researched archaeological settlements and necropolises; • inappropriate perception of the concept of evolutionary process, based on the mandatory existence/presence of a complex system of similarities between the eras. The lack of one or several segments in this system would undoubtedly demonstrate demographic hiatuses caused by migrations. In the process of studying the correlation of the content of the material culture of the cultural and chronological groups, the specific character of the transition period is completely ignored, when by virtue of the evolution process there are radical changes, not only in economy or social relations, but also in material culture, which can not always be explained. It is necessary to be aware that the changes that have taken place could be dictated by different circumstances: economic necessities, cultural evolution, and fashion reflected in the ceramic assortment through the extensive use of the relief decor, incision, stamping, known but less used in the late Bronze Age.
In this context, the archaeological situation seen at the settlements of Suruceni, Hansca, Saharna Mare / Dealul Mănăstirii, Petruşeni III «La Cigoreanu», and others is interesting.
The archaeological investigations carried out in 1975-1976 at the settlement located south-east of the Suruceni commune (Ialoveni District, the Republic of Moldova) revealed in the cultural layer and in closed complexes materials that certainly can be attributed to the final phase of the Noua culture, and also a set of ceramic objects, the attri-bution of which to the beginning of the Iron Age is beyond doubt. Among the closed complexes there is structure-dugout 2 found at a depth of 0.4 m from the modern ground surface. The structure was oval in plan, with a diameter of 3.20 × 2.80 m, deepened into the sterile layer up to 1.8 m ( fig. 1:  15). The filling is brown soil characteristic of the prehistoric layer. Pottery, for the most part quite significant, indicating the specifics of the period of its use, was found in the structure-dugout. Among the discovered objects there are: • Pots-jars with the cylindrical body and the lip bent outwards, ornamented in the upper part with a relief in the form of a belt (fig. 2: 13, 14, 25) or without ornament; • Pots-jars with rounded body and the lip bent outwards ( fig. 2: 1, 4). Both types of pots have wide analogies in the ceramic assortment at the end of the Noua culture, especially among the objects collected at the settlements of Petruşeni III «La Cigoreanu», Miciurin-Odaia (Sava 2014, p. 81, fig. 39: 8;p. 89, fig. 47: 13;p. 155, fig. 103: 3), Hansca (Каврук 1985, с. 87, рис. 2: 8, 10), etc.
• Fragments of handles of various types: with the crest ( fig. 2: 10), cylindrical knob ( fig. 2: 12) or in the form of a band ( fig. 2: 8, 11), well known at the sites of the Noua culture (Sava 2014, p. 159, fig. 107: 7, 8) and the first period of the Iron Age (Niculiţă, Nicic 2014, p. 286, fig. 71: 13-17; Together with these objects, the belonging of which to the end of the Bronze Age can not be denied, in the ceramic assemblage from structuredugout 2 there were fragments of various forms of vessels, some of which can be restored graphically, which constitute a particular category of pottery which can not be included in the ceramic assortment of the final phase of the Noua culture.
Graphically restorable cups are the most representative objects of the pottery discovered in structure-dugout 2 at the Suruceni settlement.
• Ladle-shaped cups ( fig. 1: 8, 9, 12) with rounded body and raised handle. In some cases, the base of the handle is ornamented inside with incised decoration consisted of parallel lines ( fig. 1: 4) or with angled «herringbone» lines ( fig. 1: 11) often seen as decoration in various types of cups of the first period of Iron Age (Niculiţă, Nicic 2014, p. 105).
• S-shaped cups with the maximum diameter at the bottom of the body, ornamented with strips of incised lines in different combinations. The almost vertical top is ornamented with two incised lines, placed horizontally, marking the junction of the neck with the body ( fig. 1: 13). Vessels sim-ilar by shape and decor were discovered at the settlement of Saharna Mare / Dealul Mănăstirii (Niculiţă, Zanoci, Băţ 2016, p. 58, fig. 36: 7;p. 140, fig. 91: 9).
Cups in the form of a ladle with raised handle were descried at the Radovanu settlement of the end of the Coslogeni culture, or at Truşeşti of the end of Noua culture (Morintz 1978, p. 145, fig. 4: 3; 153: 1). More widespread these types of vessels were in the 12 th -11 th centuries BC and during the Cozia-Saharna period of the 10 th -9 th centuries BC (Кашуба 2000, с. 302, рис. XVIII: 1, 2).
These similarities show that the main types of pots used in the final phase of the late Bronze Age continued to be used in the early period of the Iron Age.
On the basis of these facts, it can be concluded that the closed complex at Suruceni contained, almost to the same extent, materials characteristic of the late Bronze Age and objects of the first period of the Iron Age. This suggests that structure-dugout 2 and the settlement in corpore functioned during the formation of «the incised pottery horizon» characteristic of the Holercani-Hansca-Saharna culture.
A similar situation was found at the Petruşeni III «La Cigoreanu» settlement, where research, having been limited to archaeological prospection, provided less significant materials. Still, the analysis of the collected artifacts shows us that the cultural layer contained both material from the end of Noua culture and the first period of the Iron Age. Of interest is a bronze needle (Ösennadel) with the mushroom-shaped protome with an eyelet (Levitsckii, Sava 1993, p. 126, 129, fig. 3: 9;Sava 2014, p. 78, 91, fig. 49: 12), which is a chronological indicator of the 13 th -12 th centuries BC -the time of the transition from the final period of the Bronze Age to the «the incised pottery» cultural horizon.
At the Saharna Mare / Dealul Mănăstirii settlement, in addition to the materials from the «incised pottery» cultural layer, a closed complex was also excavated -pit 177. The pit had a cylindrical shape with a diameter of 1.9 m and a depth of 1.1 m. In it there were fragments of pots-jars and cups with the maximum diameter at the bottom of the body, with incised ornamentation, and a bronze needle with the protome and eyelet similar to those of Petruşeni III «La Cigoreanu» and Rotbav (Braşov) dated the 13 th -12 th centuries BC (Dietrich, Dietrich 2008, p. 90, Taf. II: 2;Dietrich 2014, p. 142, Taf. 26: 386-394). Analysis of the needle (Ösennadel) and the pottery shows that the period of functioning of the site did not exceed the 12 th -11 th centuries BC. Thus, the settlements of Suruceni, Petruşeni III «La Cigoreanu», Saharna Mare / Dealul Mănăstirii, Saharna Mică (early period) and Hansca completely fit into the transition period, forming a cultural level known as the Holercani-Hansca-Saharna culture, presenting the link between the Bronze and Iron Ages.
During the same period, research was continued at the Hansca-La «Matca» settlement, where the remains of a surface construction were fully identified. There are a platform of pieces of burnt clay and fragments of pottery. The pieces of clay of different sizes were subjected to intense burning, which made them hard adobe. This agglomeration was rectangular in shape, stretching from southeast to northwest on a length of 11 m, with a width of about 5 m ( fig. 3). In the middle of the platform there is a more intense concentration of burnt clay pieces located transversely from east to west, with a width of between 0.8-0.85 m. The agglomeration seems to be the remains of a wall that divided the construction into two rooms. The northern room was 6.5 × 5.0 m in size and the southern one of about 4.7-5.0 m. In the northwest corner of the northern room the remains of the hearth destroyed in prehistoric time were found. Several pieces of burnt clay from the hearth platform have been preserved. The remains of the hearth were found in the middle of a pit, oval in plan, with the diameters of 0.90 × 2.40 m and the depth of 1 m. It was a pile of pieces of burnt clay, the diameter of which is 0.80 m and the height is 0.70 m ( fig. 3).
In the middle of the southern room there was a platform of limestone pieces, oval in shape, with  . 3). Thus, it can be concluded that these are the ruins of a building with two rooms that were heated by hearths, and then looked like a dwelling. From the surface dwelling, along with the pieces of burnt clay, a rich ceramic material was preserved, the study of which allowed the distinguishing of several forms of pots. It should be noted that most of the fragments, including graphically restorable, belong to rudimentary ceramics made of clay with chamotte ingredients. Among the graphically restorable fragments of interest are: • Bag-shaped vessels with the lip slightly bent outwards, ornamented with the incised belt with oblique alveoli ( fig. 4: 4, 6). Similar objects are known for the late Bronze Age, being found at Ulmu, Sultana (Morintz 1978, p. 130, fig. 68: 12;p. 138, fig. 76: 12), Cobâlea (Sava 2014, p. 231, fig. 152: 1, 5) and other sites attributed to the complex of Noua-Sabatinovka-Coslogeni dated the 16 th -13 th centuries BC (Sava 2002, p. 213-220;Sava 2014, p. 522).
• Jar-shaped vessels with vertical rounded lip. Some specimens have a perforation under the lip ( fig. 4: 8). This type of vessel is widespread in the sites of the late Bronze Age and the 1st millennium BC.
• Vessels with trumpet-shaped neck and globular body. The well-shaped neck is ornamented with a decoration consisting of 5-8 incised horizontal lines ( fig. 4: 2, 7, 10). The shoulder of a vessel or the area of maximum diameter of its body in some cases are decorated with four symmetrically flattened knobs ( fig. 4: 7, 10), in other cases under the strip of horizontally incised lines there is a decoration consisting of double angles ( fig. 4: 2). Specimens similar by shape and decor were also found at this settlement (Никулицэ 1981, с. 80, рис. 4: 2). Vessels with trumpet-shaped neck decorated with incised lines, but also with a rich ornament on the line of the maximum diameter of the body are characteristic of the Ticvanul Mare-Karaburma III group of «…the period of transition from the Bronze Age to the first period of the Iron Age, the middle of the 12 th -the end of the 11 th century BC» (Gumă 1993, p. 179, pl. XXV: 2). Similar specimens are also known by the discoveries at Prăjeşti, Epureni and other sites characteristic of the Gava-Holigrady and Corlăteni-Chişinău cultures (Laszlo 1994, p. 282, fig. 62: 7, 8;p. 291, fig. 71).
• Cups with vertical neck, rounded body with maximum diameter at the top, and the raised handle ( fig. 4: 1). A similar specimen before the identification was found in the burial complex at Hansca (Leviţki 1994b, p. 245, pl. 6: 8). Cups with the maximum diameter at the top of the body were still used by the communities of the late Bronze Age, which are known by the specimens found at the Coslogeni type settlement at Radovanu (Morintz 1978, p. 144, fig. 83: 1, 11;fig. 84: 1). Similar objects with the raised handle, the lower end of which is located in the area of the maximum diameter of the body, have been found at the early Iron Age settlement of Saharna-ţiglău (Niculiţă, Nicic 2014, p. 284, fig. 69: 8), the Alcedar necropolis (Кашуба 2000, с. 391, рис. LXVII: 7, 8), and at other sites of the Middle Dniester region.
The analysis of the materials collected at the closed complexes of the settlements of Suruceni, Hansca «La Matcă», Petruşeni III «La Cigoreanu», Saharna Mare / Dealul Mănăstirii, Saharna Mică, Saharna-ţiglău seems to show the existence of a link between the material cultures of the final stage the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age. However, this does not mean that the evolutionary processes that have taken place in certain micro-zones must necessarily coincide with the cultural-chronological situation in the surrounding areas. Processes similar to those of Suruceni, Hansca, Saharna Mare / Dealul Mănăstirii were also descried at other sites, but in different variants. The Saharna Mică settlement, which was actively developing in the XII-XI centuries BC, was abandoned at the beginning of the X century BC, and then again inhabited in the second half of the VIII century BC. The Saharna «La Şanţ» settlement was founded and existed since the X-IX centuries BC, as well as the settlement of Glinjeni, and so on. In this context, we believe that it is counterproductive to put forward the idea that the evolutionary process was the same for the entire area under consideration and occurred in the same chronological period. It is worth noting that the theories of indigenism and migrationism -this constantly dominant disease in the historiography of the 20 th century -require new approaches associated with reliable statistical calculations, including detailed characteristics and classifications, as well as a thorough analysis of placement and topography of the sites, of all categories of artifacts, rituals and funeral rites, objects of art and religious worship.